Description Test Bank For Biological Psychology 12th Edition by James W. Kalat True / FalseTrue / False 1. A striated muscle controls movement of the body in relation to the environment. FalseANSWER: TrueDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementsLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 2. In skeletal muscles, every axon releases dopamine. FalseANSWER: FalseDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementsLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 3. Taking a drug that blocks acetylcholine receptors would be helpful for a person with myasthenia gravis.

FalseANSWER: FalseDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementsLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 4. Activation of the Golgi tendon organs results in contraction of the muscle. FalseANSWER: FalseDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementsLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 5.

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Infants have several reflexes not seen in adults. FalseANSWER: TrueDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 6. Most types of movement can be clearly classified as voluntary or involuntary. FalseANSWER: FalseDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 7.

Central pattern generators are most likely to be found in the spinal cord. FalseANSWER: TrueDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 8. A fixed sequence of movements is called a motor program. FalseANSWER: TrueDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 9. The motor cortex can become active when imagining movement. FalseANSWER: TrueDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 10.

People with severe spinal cord injury continue to produce normal activity in the motor cortex when they want to move. FalseANSWER: TrueDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 11. The prefrontal cortex plans movements according to their probable outcomes. FalseANSWER: TrueDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 12. The supplementary motor cortex is mainly active when preparing for an organized sequence of movements. FalseANSWER: TrueDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 13.

Mirror neurons are active both during preparation for a movement and while watching someone else perform the same or a similar movement. FalseANSWER: TrueDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 14. Brain transplants for Parkinson’s patients have generally been very successful. FalseANSWER: FalseDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 15. In Huntington’s disease, earlier onset is associated with slower deterioration over time.

FalseANSWER: FalseDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders Multiple Choice 16. What type of muscle controls movements of the heart? Antagonistic ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 17. What type of muscle controls movements of internal organs? AntagonisticANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control themTOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 18. What type of muscle is responsible for the movement of your body through the environment? Syncarpous ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 19.

What is the relationship between the motor neuron axons and muscle fibers? Each axon innervates only one muscle fiber.

The more muscle fibers a single axon innervates, the more precise the movements. The more axons which innervate a single muscle fiber, the more precise the movements. The fewer muscle fibers a single axon innervates, the more precise the movements. ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 20. The eye muscles can be moved with greater precision than the biceps muscles because ____.

Biceps have only slow-twitch muscles b. Biceps have only fast-twitch muscles c. Biceps are opposed by an antagonistic muscle; the eye muscles are not d. Eye muscles have a lower ratio of muscle fibers to axons ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 21.

What is the name given to the synapse where a motor neuron’s axon meets a muscle fiber? Neuromuscular junction b.

Polar junction c. Muscle spindle d. Neurofiber synapse ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 22. Moving a leg or arm back and forth requires opposing sets of muscles called ____. Extensor muscles b. Flexor muscles c.

Cardiac muscles d. Antagonistic muscles ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 23. The absence of acetylcholine will cause a muscle to ____. Stretch ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 24. Which muscle is “antagonistic” to a flexor muscle in the right arm?

A flexor muscle in the right arm b. An extensor muscle in the left arm c. An extensor muscle in the right arm d. Another flexor muscle in the right arm ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 25. The eye muscles have a ratio of about ____ axon(s) per ____ muscle fiber(s).

Two; three b. One; three c. Three; two d. Three; oneANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 26. The biceps muscles of the arm have a ratio of ____ to more than a hundred fibers.

Two ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 27. In movement, the ____ muscle straightens the arm. Skeletal ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 28.

A fish will adjust to lower water temperatures by ____. Activating more action potentials b.

Increasing the amplitude of its action potentials c. Recruiting different muscle fibers d. Returning to its basal metabolic rate ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 29. Which muscles are especially important when running up a flight of stairs at full speed?fast-twitch muscles a. Slow-twitch muscles c. Smooth muscles d.

Intermediate musclesANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 30. If a new species were found with legs composed almost completely of fast-twitch muscles, what could we infer about its behavior? It could chase prey over long distances.

It could chase prey only over short distances. It probably travels constantly.

It probably moves slowly and grazes on vegetation. ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 31. During aerobic exercises such as dancing, as glucose is used by the muscles, ____.

Fast-twitch fibers absorb more glucose b. Slow-twitch muscles produce glucose anaerobically c. Glucose use increases d. Glucose use decreases ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 32. Exercising at a high altitude where there is less oxygen is most likely to affect ____. Intermediate fibers b. Anaerobic contraction c.

Fast-twitch fibers d. Slow-twitch fibers ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 33. Vigorous use of fast-twitch fibers results in fatigue because the process is ____. Abolic ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 34. A proprioceptor is sensitive to the ____.

Degree of relaxation or contraction of smooth muscle tissue b. Position and movement of a part of the body c.

Percentage of fibers that are contracting within a muscle bundle d. Degree of fatigue in a muscle ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 35.

The stretch reflex ____. Results in a stretch b.

Is caused by a stretch c. Inhibits motor neurons d. Sends a message for a muscle to relax ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 36. A boxer’s ability to sense the position of his arm and hand before planning a punch is dependent on the sense of ____. Proprioception b.

Somatosensation c. Vision ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 37. A muscle spindle responds to the ____. Oxygen level in the muscle b. Acetylcholine concentration at the nerve-muscle junction c. Fatigue of the muscle d.

Stretch of the muscle ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 38. A sudden stretch of a muscle excites a feedback system that opposes the stretch. This message starts in the ____.

Dorsal root ganglion b. Cerebellum c. Pacinian corpuscles d. Muscle spindles ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 39.

A Golgi tendon organ responds to ____. Increases in muscle tension b.

Decreases in muscle tension c. Increases in muscle spindles d. Decreases in muscle spindles ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 40. The role of the Golgi tendon organs is to ____.

Prevent extreme muscle contractions b. Guard against fatigue of muscles c. Produce rapid repetitive movements such as finger tapping d. Regulate blood flow to the tendons and muscles ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 41. Muscle spindles respond to changes in muscle ____; Golgi tendon organs respond to changes in muscle ____. Tension; fatigue b.

Fatigue; tension c. Stretch; tension d. Tension; stretch ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 42. Activity of a muscle spindle is to ____ as activity of the Golgi tendon organ is to ____. Contraction; inhibition of contraction b. Inhibition of contraction; contraction c. Inhibition of contraction; inhibition of contraction d.

Contraction; contraction ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 43. What experience is similar to losing proprioception? Losing your sense of equilibrium b. Walking on a leg that has “fallen asleep” c.

Having a phantom limb d. Teeth chattering in the cold ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 44. A physician who asks you to cross your legs and then taps just below the knee is testing your ____ reflexes.

Constriction b. Fast ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Muscles and Their MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 45. A ballistic movement ____. Is a rhythmic alternation between two movements b.

Is guided by feedback during the course of the movement c. Proceeds automatically once it has been triggered d. Tends to overcorrect itself ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 46. Central pattern generators ____. Contribute to rhythmic patterns of movement b.

Generate movement which is unresponsive to environmental stimulation c. Constrict the pupils in response to bright light d. Control all reflexes in adult humans ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 47.

A motor program is a ____. Mechanism that guides movement on the basis of sensory feedback b.

Mechanism that produces an alternation between two movements c. Plan for training a brain-damaged person to walk d.

Movement that, once triggered, continues automatically until its completion ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 48. Which action is an example of a motor program in chickens with featherless wings?

Flapping wings if suddenly dropped b. Learning to fly c. Stretching its wings but not flapping them d. Flapping its wings while eating ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 49.

Which behavior is most likely to result from the activity of central pattern generators? A dog shaking itself to dry off b.

A child catching a baseball c. A child playing the piano d. An adult yawning ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 50.

Which activity is an example of a motor program in a human? Making a list c. Taking your first steps d. Learning how to drive ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Units of MovementLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 51.

In order to elicit movement, the motor cortex ____. Has direct connections to the muscles b.

Sends axons to the brainstem and spinal cord c. Controls isolated movement in a single muscle d. Relies on feedback from individual muscle fibers ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 52.

The posterior parietal cortex ____. Is the main area for touch and other body information b. Keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world c. Is active during preparations for a movement and less active during movement itself d. Responds to lights, noises, and other signals for a movement. ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 53. People with posterior parietal damage ____.

Can see an object, but are unable to describe it b. Have good hand-eye coordination only if they close one eye c. Have difficulty accurately locating and approaching a sound d. Will not step over an obstacle, although they can accurately describe it ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 54. People with posterior parietal damage ____.

Cannot walk toward something they hear b. Have trouble converting vision into action c. Can walk toward something they see but cannot reach out to grasp it d. Cannot accurately describe what they see. ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 55. The prefrontal cortex ____. Is the main area for touch and other body information b.

Keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world c. Is active during preparations for a movement and less active during movement itself d. Responds to lights, noises, and other signals for a movement. ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 56. The premotor cortex ____. Is the main area for touch and other body information b. Keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world c.

Is active during preparations for a movement and less active during movement itself d. Responds to lights, noises, and other signals for a movement ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 57. Damage to the prefrontal cortex is most likely to result in ____. An inability to move b.

The loss of somatosensory experiences c. Poorly planned movements d. No effect on movement ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 58. The part of the cortex that is most active during preparations for a movement and less active during the movement itself is the ____. Premotor cortex b.

Somatosensory cortex c. Inferior temporal cortex d. Tabes dorsalis ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 59. In contrast to people with posterior parietal damage, people with damage to certain parts of the occipital cortex outside the primary visual cortex ____.

Cannot locate the source of sounds b. Lose their ability to see everything c. Can accurately describe what they see but cannot reach out to grasp it d. Cannot accurately describe what they see but can reach out to grasp it ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 60. When are the cells in the premotor cortex (in contrast to the primary motor cortex) most active? In preparation for movements b. During movements c.

At or after the end of movements d. During inhibition of movements ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 61. The part of the cortex that responds mostly to the sensory signals that lead to a movement is the ____. Premotor cortex b. Prefrontal cortex c. Supplementary motor cortex d.

Tabes dorsalis ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 62. Cells in the prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and ____ prepare for a movement, sending messages to the primary motor cortex. Posterior parietal cortex b. Secondary motor cortex c.

Somatosensory cortex d. Supplementary motor cortex ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 63. The supplementary motor cortex becomes active ____. During the second or two after a movement b. During the second or two prior to a movement c. Only during a movement d.

Only after a movement ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 64. Damage to the ____ impairs the ability to organize smooth sequences of activities. Premotor cortex b. Prefrontal cortex c. Supplementary motor cortex d.

Tabes dorsalis ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 65. Just thinking about the intention to put your arm around your attractive date would activate which motor areas?

Posterior parietal lobe b. Primary motor cortex c.

Premotor cortex d. Supplementary motor cortex ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 66. Watching another person shoot a basketball is most likely to activate ____ neurons in the brain of the person who is watching. Primary motor cortex b. Spinal cord c. Observational ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 67. Mirror neurons are active when ____.

Viewing mirror images b. Watching others perform movements c.

Identifying ourselves in the mirror d. Playing the piano ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 68. The motor cortex produces a kind of activity called a(n) ____ before any voluntary movement.

Readiness potential b. Action potential c. Evoked potential d. Motor potential ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 69. Studies on conscious decisions regarding voluntary movements suggest that ____. We are conscious of our decision before brain activity is generated for movement b.

Voluntary movements are the result of free will c. Brain activity for the movement begins before we are conscious of our decision d. We are unable to judge when we make conscious decisions ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.05 – Evaluate the evidence regarding the role of consciousness in planning a movement.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 70. People with damage to the parietal cortex appear to lack ____ related to voluntary movements. A feelings of intention a. Feelings of intention b. The ability to make conscious decisions c.

A sense of timing d. Muscle strength ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 71. Paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord are called the ____. Pyramidalspinal tracts b. Horizontalspinal tracts c.

Dorsospinal tracts d. Corticospinal tracts ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 72.

Axons of the lateral corticospinal tract extend to what area? Cerebellum b. Cerebral cortex c. Spinal cord d.

Thalamus ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 73. The lateral tract cross over point is in the ____. Pyramids of the medulla b. Spinal cord c. Reticular formation d. Vestibular nucleus ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 74. Lateral tract axons are responsible for movements in the ____.

Arms, hands, and toes b. Face and head d. Internal organs ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 75. Most of the axons of the medial tract go to which side of the body? Contralateral b.

Ipsilateral c. Dorsolateral ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 76. Movements near the midline of the body, such as bending and turning of the trunk, are controlled by which motor system? Dorsolateral tract b. Medial tract c.

Supplementary d. Hippocampal ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 77. What is the relationship between the lateral tract and the medial tract?

Most movements are controlled by one or the other, but not both. Most movements rely on both, which work in a cooperative fashion.

Most movements that are initiated by one are terminated by the other. One is excitatory while the other is inhibitory.

ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 78. If you have trouble with rapid, ballistic movement sequences that require accurate timing, you probably have suffered damage to the ____. Reticular formation b. Cerebellum c. Hippocampus d.

Hypothalamus ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Moveme 79. Speaking, piano playing, athletic skills, and other rapid movements would be most impaired by damage to which structure? Reticular formation b. Cerebellum c.

Ventromedial hypothalamus d. Parasympathetic nervous system ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 80. Damage to the cerebellum is most likely to interfere with ____. Lifting weights b. The ability to remember a series of events c. Rapid movements that require timing d. Chewing and swallowing ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 81.

What is the name of the rapid eye movement occurring when a person moves his or her eyes from one focus point to another? Saccade ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 82. A saccade is initiated by impulses from the ____. Spinal cord b. Hypothalamus c.

Cerebellum d. Hippocampus ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 83. After damage to the cerebellar cortex, an individual has trouble with which part of the finger-to-nose test? The initial rapid movement to the nose b. The second step involving the hold function c. The third step which involves the finger moving to the nose by a slow movement d. Both the second and third steps ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 84.

The nuclei of the cerebellum (as opposed to the cerebellar cortex) are most important in ____. Moving a finger rapidly toward a target b. Holding a finger in a steady position c.

Using the hands to lift heavy weights d. Coordinating the left hand with the right hand ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 85. The cerebellum is most important for any process that requires ____. Precise timing b. Control of muscle strength c. Comparison between the left and right hemispheres d. Detecting the intensity of a stimulus ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 86.

Purkinje cells are ____. Proprioceptors b. Flat cells in sequential planes c. Nuclei in the central cerebellum d. Axons parallel to one another ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 87. How do parallel fibers in the cerebellum control the duration of a response?

By determining the number of Purkinje cells that fire in sequence b. By altering the velocity of action potentials from Purkinje cells c. By determining which one of all the available Purkinje cells becomes active d. By passing information back and forth between one Purkinje cell and another ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 88. Which widely branching cells are responsible for all of the output from the cerebellar cortex to the nuclei of the cerebellum?

Parallel fibers b. Purkinje cells c. Putamen cells d.

Saccade cells ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 89. The greater the number of Purkinje cells activated, the ____. Less the collective duration of the response b. Greater the collective duration of the response c. Greater the strength of the response d. Less the strength of the response ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 90. The structure composed of the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus is the ____.

Basal ganglia b. Limbic system c. Cerebellum d.

Sympathetic nervous system ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Basal GangliaLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 91. Most of the output from the globus pallidus to the thalamus releases ____. GABA ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Basal GangliaLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 92. Which basal ganglia structure(s) is/are important for receiving input from sensory areas of the thalamus and the cerebral cortex?

Globus pallidus and putamen b. Globus pallidus and caudate nucleus c. Caudate nucleus and putamen d. Globus pallidus ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: The Basal GangliaLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 93. The basal ganglia are most critical for learning ____.

Motor habits that are difficult to describe in words b. Repetitive motor behaviors like cutting with a knife c. Motor skills that include an element of balance d. Fine motor skills such as sewing ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Brain Areas and Motor learningLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 94. Cerebellum is to ____ as basal ganglia are to ____.

Clumsy; paralysis b. Initiation; stopping c.

Gross muscle function; fine motor coordination d. Timing; voluntary movements ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Basal GangliaLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 95. What is one of the main symptoms of Parkinson’s disease? Rapid fatigue of the muscles b. Loss of saccadic eye movements c. Difficulty initiating movements d.

Inability to coordinate speech with movements ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 96. Parkinson’s disease is caused by degeneration of a pathway of neurons that releases which neurotransmitter? Acetylcholine b. Substance P c. Dopamine ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 97.

In Parkinson’s disease, which pathway in the brain degenerates? Basal ganglia to cerebellum b. Substantia nigra to caudate nucleus and putamen c. Cerebellum to spinal cord d. Cerebral cortex to spinal cord ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 98. The role of heredity in late-onset Parkinson’s disease ____. Equals that of early onset Parkinson’s disease b.

Is probably not as great as with early onset Parkinson’s disease c. Is greater for DZ twins that MZ twins d. Is greater for females than males ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 99. Genetic factors have their greatest impact on Parkinson’s disease in cases that involve ____. Early onset of the disease b. Late onset of the disease c. First-born children d.

Children with older brothers and sisters ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 100. What is the effect of MPTP?

It kills the neurons that release dopamine. It suppresses activity of the immune system. It is converted in the brain to dopamine. It inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.

ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 101. It is believed that exposure to herbicides and pesticides is ____. The primary cause of Parkinson’s disease b. A contributing factor in some cases of Huntington’s disease c. The primary cause of myasthenia gravis d. A contributing factor in some cases of Parkinson’s disease ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 102.

What is the most common drug in the treatment for Parkinson’s disease? Haloperidol b. Physostigmine c. L-dopa ANSWER: dDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 103.

A dopamine pill is ineffective for treating Parkinson’s disease because it ____. Is already present in too large an amount b. Does not cross the blood-brain barrier c. Would have to be the size of a baseball to be effective d.

Is too expensive ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 104. What is a limitation of using L-dopa for Parkinson’s disease? It only helps those who are in the later stages. It does not cross the blood-brain barrier. It can contribute to a greater loss of dopamine neurons.

It blocks glutamate receptors. ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 105. L-Dopa, a common treatment for Parkinson’s disease, is a drug that ____.

Inhibits activity of the immune system b. Increases the brain’s production of dopamine c. Blocks the enzyme acetylcholinesterase d. Facilitates the passage of sodium across neuron membranesANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 106.

As an option for treating Parkinson’s patients, transplantation of stem cells appears to be ____. The most effective technique b. More effective in late stages of the disease c. Modestly effective, as with other treatments d. Not at all effective ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 107.

Early symptoms of Huntington’s disease usually include ____. Jerky arm movements and body tremors c. Rapid fatigue d. Difficulty coordinating the left hand with the right handANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 108.

What is a common symptom of Huntington’s disease? Rapid fatigue of the muscles b. Loss of both sensation and motor control in certain limbs c.

Twitches, tremors, and writhing that interfere with voluntary movement d. Impairment of saccadic eye movements and rapid alternating movements ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 109. Which parts of the brain deteriorate most strongly in Huntington’s disease?

Pathways of neurons containing the neurotransmitter dopamine b. The cerebellum and medulla c. The caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus d. The hippocampus and amygdala ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 110.

The psychological disorders that accompany Huntington’s disease could be mistaken for which of the following? Schizophrenia b. Dissociative identity disorder c.

Antisocial personality disorder d. Bipolar disorder ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 111. What is the usual age of onset for Huntington’s disease? 5-7 years old b.

12-20 years old c. 30-50 years old d. 65 years or older ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 112.

What is the relationship of genetics to Huntington’s disease? It is caused by a dominant gene on the X chromosome. It is caused by a dominant gene on chromosome 4. It is caused by a recessive gene on one of the autosomal chromosomes. There is no evidence linking Huntington’s disease to any gene.

ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 113. In its normal form, part of the gene that controls Huntington’s disease repeats its sequence of bases ____.

Under ten times b. Between approximately 11-24 times c. At least 36 times d. Approximately 75 or 80 times ANSWER: bDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 114. The presymptomatic test for Huntington’s disease enables one to predict not only who will get the disease but also ____.

The approximate age of onset b. What other diseases the person will contract c. Which drugs will best alleviate the disease d. Which symptoms will become prominent first, and which ones later ANSWER: aDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: UnderstandREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 115. Which of the following would be the most promising treatment for Huntington’s disease? Enhancing formation of glutamine chains b.

Increasing production of huntingtin c. Blocking formation of glutamine chain clustering d. Decreasing production of BDNF ANSWER: cDIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Huntington’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders Essay 116.

Describe the areas and major functions of the primary motor cortex (include the relevant areas near to the motor cortex).ANSWER: Since the pioneering work of Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig (1870), neuroscientists have known that direct electrical stimulation of the primary motor cortex—the precentral gyrus of the frontal cortex, just anterior to the central sulcus—elicits movements. The motor cortex does not send messages directly to the muscles. Its axons extend to the brainstem and spinal cord, which generate the impulses that control the muscles.

In most mammals, these axons connect only to interneurons, which in turn control motor neurons. In humans and other primates, some axons go directly from the cerebral cortex to motor neurons, presumably giving us greater dexterity. Human movements depend on both the axons to motor neurons and axons to interneurons. The motor cortex is just anterior to the somatosensory cortex, and the two match up nicely.

That is, the brain area that controls the left hand is near the area that feels the left hand, the area that controls the left foot is near the area that feels the left foot, and so forth. You need to feel a body part to control its movement accurately.

The primary motor cortex is important for making movements, but not for initial planning. One of the first areas to become active in planning a movement is the posterior parietal cortex which monitors the position of the body relative to the world. The prefrontal cortex and the supplementary motor cortex are also important for planning and organizing a rapid sequence. The premotor cortex is most active immediately before a movement. It receives information about the target to which the body is directing its movement, as well as information about the body’s current position and posture. The prefrontal cortex, which is also active during a delay before a movement, stores sensory information relevant to a movement.

It is also important for considering the probable outcomes of possible movements.DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 117. Describe the significance of mirror neurons.ANSWER: Of discoveries in neuroscience, one of the most exciting to psychologists has been mirror neurons, which are active both during preparation for a movement and while watching someone else perform the same or a similar movement. Mirror neurons were first reported in the premotor cortex of monkeys and later in other areas and other species, including humans. These neurons are theoretically exciting because of the idea that they may be important for understanding other people, identifying with them, and imitating them. For example, mirror neurons in part of the frontal cortex become active when people smile or see someone else smile, and they respond especially strongly in people who report identifying strongly with other people. Many people have speculated that people with autism—who fail to form strong social bonds—might lack mirror neurons.

However, one study using fMRI found normal mirror neuron responses in autistic people, so we need to look elsewhere to explain autism. Mirror neurons are activated not only by seeing an action, but also by any reminder of the action.

Certain cells respond to hearing an action as well as seeing or doing it. Other cells respond to either doing an action or reading about it. The possibilities are exciting, but before we speculate too far, an important question remains: Do mirror neurons cause imitation and social behavior, or do they result from them? Put another way, are we born with neurons that respond to the sight of a movement and also facilitate the same movement?

If so, they could be important for social learning. However, another possibility is that we learn which visible movements correspond to movements of our own. Then seeing others’ actions reminds us of our own, and activates brain areas responsible for those actions. In that case, mirror neurons are not responsible for imitation or socialization. The answer may be different for different movements. Some newborn infants imitate a few facial movements, especially tongue protrusion. That result implies built-in mirror neurons that connect the sight of a movement to the movement itself.

However, in both monkey and human infants, many mirror neurons do not respond to observations of others’ movements until after the infant has practiced making those movements itself. A mirror neuron cannot be essential for learning to imitate a movement if you have to practice the movement before that neuron develops its mirror properties. Also, researchers identified mirror neurons that responded both when people moved a certain finger, such as the index finger, and when they watched someone else move the same finger. Then they asked people to watch a display on the screen and move their index finger whenever the hand on the screen moved the little finger. They were to move their little finger whenever the hand on the screen moved the index finger. After some practice, these “mirror” neurons turned into “counter-mirror” neurons that responded to movements of one finger by that person and the sight of a different finger on the screen.

In other words, at least some mirror neurons modify their properties by learning, and therefore it is possible that they developed their original properties by learning also.DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 118. Describe the relationship of conscious decisions and movements. What may this relationship reveal about consciousness?ANSWER: Each of us has the feeling, “I consciously decide to do something, and then I do it.” That sequence seems so obvious that we might not even question it, but research casts doubt on this assumption. Research indicates that the brain activity responsible for the movement apparently began before the person’s conscious decision to move. The results seem to indicate that your conscious decision does not cause your action. Rather, you become conscious of the decision after the process leading to action has already been underway for about 300 ms.

None of these results deny that you make a voluntary decision. The implication, however, is that what we identify as a conscious decision is the perception of a gradual brain process.

It probably begins with unconscious processes that build up to a certain level before they become conscious. DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The Cerebral CortexLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.05 – Evaluate the evidence regarding the role of consciousness in planning a movement.TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 119. Briefly describe the cellular organization of the cerebellum.ANSWER: The cerebellum receives input from the spinal cord, from each of the sensory systems by way of the cranial nerve nuclei, and from the cerebral cortex.

That information eventually reaches the cerebellar cortex, the surface of the cerebellum.• The neurons are arranged in a precise geometrical pattern, with multiple repetitions of the same units.• The Purkinje cells are flat (two-dimensional) cells in sequential planes, parallel to one another.• The parallel fibers are axons parallel to one another and perpendicular to the planes of the Purkinje cells.• Action potentials in parallel fibers excite one Purkinje cell after another. Each Purkinje cell then transmits an inhibitory message to cells in the nuclei of the cerebellum (clusters of cell bodies in the interior of the cerebellum) and the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem, which in turn send information to the midbrain and the thalamus.• Depending on which and how many parallel fibers are active, they might stimulate only the first few Purkinje cells or a long series of them. Because the parallel fibers’ messages reach different Purkinje cells one after another, the greater the number of excited Purkinje cells, the greater their collective duration of response.

That is, if the parallel fibers stimulate only the first few Purkinje cells, the result is a brief message to the target cells; if they stimulate more Purkinje cells, the message lasts longer. The output of Purkinje cells controls the timing of a movement, including both its onset and offset.DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: The CerebellumLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal gangliaTOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 120.

Briefly describe the nature of Parkinson’s disease. Include a discussion of its causes and possible treatments.ANSWER: The main symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (also known as Parkinson disease) are rigidity, muscle tremors, slow movements, and difficulty initiating physical and mental activity.

It becomes more common as people age, striking 1 percent to 2 percent of people over age 65. Early symptoms usually include loss of olfaction and psychological depression. Many but not all Parkinson’s patients have cognitive deficits, which may include problems with attention, language, or memory. The immediate cause of Parkinson’s disease is the gradual loss of neurons in the substantia nigra and therefore a loss of dopamine-releasing axons to the striatum (part of the basal ganglia). With the loss of this input, the striatum decreases its inhibition of the globus pallidus, which therefore increases its inhibitory input to the thalamus.

The result is less vigorous voluntary movements. People with Parkinson’s disease are still capable of movement, and sometimes they move normally in response to signals or instructions, such as when following a parade. However, their spontaneous movements are slow and weak. What causes the damage to the substantia nigra?

An early study reported that having a monozygotic twin with early-onset Parkinson’s disease greatly increased your probability of getting it, but having a monozygotic twin with late-onset disease had no effect. That result implied that genes make little or no contribution to late-onset Parkinson’s disease. Later studies have found less extreme results, indicating that genes do influence the late-onset disease, though less strongly than they impact early-onset disease.

So far, researchers have identified more than 20 genes that apparently increase the risk of Parkinson’s disease, although the results vary from one study to another, and one population to another. The results agree, however, that none of these genes by itself produces a high risk. An accidental discovery implicated exposure to toxins as another factor in Parkinson’s disease. In northern California in 1982, several young adults developed symptoms of Parkinson’s disease after using a drug similar to heroin.

Before the investigators could alert the community to the danger, many other users had developed symptoms ranging from mild to fatal. The substance responsible for the symptoms was MPTP, a chemical that the body converts to MPP+, which accumulates in, and then destroys, neurons that release dopamine, partly by impairing the transport of mitochondria from the cell body to the synapse.

Postsynaptic neurons react to the loss of input by increasing their number of dopamine receptors. People are sometimes exposed to hazardous environmental chemicals that damage cells of the substantia nigra. Many studies have shown increased risk of Parkinson’s disease among people with much exposure to insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, including paraquat, rotenone, maneb, and ziram. The disease is more common in farmers and other rural dwellers than in city dwellers, presumably because of increased exposure to these chemicals. Exposure to these chemicals increases the risk especially among people with any of the genes that predispose to Parkinson’s.

If someone also had a traumatic head injury, the risk goes up even more. In short, most cases result from several influences combined, not just one.

What else might influence the risk of Parkinson’s disease? Researchers compared the lifestyles of people who did and didn’t develop the disease.

One factor that stands out consistently is cigarette smoking and coffee drinking: People who smoke cigarettes or drink coffee have less chance of developing Parkinson’s disease. Because Parkinson’s disease results from a dopamine deficiency, a logical goal is to restore the missing dopamine. A dopamine pill would be ineffective because dopamine does not cross the blood–brain barrier. Physicians in the 1950s and 1960s reasoned that L-dopa, a precursor to dopamine that does cross the barrier, might be a good treatment. In contrast to all the medicines that were discovered by trial and error, this was the first drug in psychiatry or neurology, and one of the first in all of medicine, to emerge from a plausible theory. Taken as a daily pill, L-dopa reaches the brain, where neurons convert it to dopamine. L-dopa is still the most common treatment for Parkinson’s disease.

However, L-dopa treatment is disappointing in several ways. It increases dopamine release in all axons, including those that had deteriorated and those that were still functioning normally. It produces spurts of high release alternating with lower release. Even if it adequately replaces lost dopamine, it does not replace other transmitters that are also depleted. It does not slow the continuing loss of neurons. And it produces unpleasant side effects such as nausea, restlessness, sleep problems, low blood pressure, repetitive movements, and sometimes hallucinations and delusions.

A potentially exciting strategy has been “in the experimental stage” since the 1980s. In a pioneering study, M. Perlow and colleagues (1979) injected the chemical 6-OHDA (6-hydroxydopamine, a chemical modification of dopamine) into rats to damage the substantia nigra of one hemisphere, producing Parkinson’s-type symptoms on the opposite side of the body. After the movement abnormalities stabilized, the experimenters transplanted substantia nigra tissue from rat fetuses into the damaged brains. Most recipients recovered much of their normal movement within four weeks. Control animals that suffered the same brain damage without receiving grafts showed little or no recovery.

This is only a partial brain transplant, but still, the Frankensteinian implications are striking. If such surgery works for rats, might it also for humans? Ordinarily, scientists test any experimental procedure extensively with laboratory animals before trying it on humans, but with Parkinson’s disease, the temptation was too great.

People in the late stages have little to lose and are willing to try almost anything. The obvious problem is where to get the donor tissue.

Several early studies used tissue from the patient’s own adrenal gland. Although that tissue is not composed of neurons, it produces and releases dopamine. Unfortunately, the adrenal gland transplants seldom produced much benefit.

Another possibility is to transplant brain tissue from aborted fetuses. Fetal neurons transplanted into the brains of patients with Parkinson’s sometimes survive for years and make synapses with the patient’s own cells. However, the operation is expensive and difficult, requiring brain tissue from four to eight aborted fetuses, and the benefits to the patient have been small at best. A related approach is to take stem cells—immature cells that are capable of differentiating into other cell types—guide their development so that they produce large quantities of L-dopa, and then transplant them into the brain. The idea sounds promising, but researchers will need to overcome several difficulties before this might become an effective treatment.DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: AnalyzeREFERENCES: Parkinson’s DiseaseLEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders True / False 1.

A striated muscle controls movement of the body in relation to the environment. False ANSWER: True DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movements LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 2. In skeletal muscles, every axon releases dopamine. False ANSWER: False DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movements LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 3.

Taking a drug that blocks acetylcholine receptors would be helpful for a person with myasthenia gravis. False ANSWER: False DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movements LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 4. Activation of the Golgi tendon organs results in contraction of the muscle. False ANSWER: False DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movements LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 5. Infants have several reflexes not seen in adults.

False ANSWER: True DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 6. Most types of movement can be clearly classified as voluntary or involuntary.

False ANSWER: False DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 7. Central pattern generators are most likely to be found in the spinal cord. False ANSWER: True DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 8. A fixed sequence of movements is called a motor program.

False ANSWER: True DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 9. The motor cortex can become active when imagining movement. False ANSWER: True DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 10. People with severe spinal cord injury continue to produce normal activity in the motor cortex when they want to move. False ANSWER: True DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.

TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 11. The prefrontal cortex plans movements according to their probable outcomes. False ANSWER: True DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 12. The supplementary motor cortex is mainly active when preparing for an organized sequence of movements. False ANSWER: True DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 13.

Mirror neurons are active both during preparation for a movement and while watching someone else perform the same or a similar movement. False ANSWER: True DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 14. Brain transplants for Parkinson’s patients have generally been very successful. False ANSWER: False DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 15.

In Huntington’s disease, earlier onset is associated with slower deterioration over time. False ANSWER: False DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders Multiple Choice 16. What type of muscle controls movements of the heart? Antagonistic ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 17.

What type of muscle controls movements of internal organs? Antagonistic ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 18. What type of muscle is responsible for the movement of your body through the environment? Syncarpous ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 19. What is the relationship between the motor neuron axons and muscle fibers?

Each axon innervates only one muscle fiber. The more muscle fibers a single axon innervates, the more precise the movements. The more axons which innervate a single muscle fiber, the more precise the movements. The fewer muscle fibers a single axon innervates, the more precise the movements.

ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 20. The eye muscles can be moved with greater precision than the biceps muscles because ____. Biceps have only slow-twitch muscles b. Biceps have only fast-twitch muscles c. Biceps are opposed by an antagonistic muscle; the eye muscles are not d.

Eye muscles have a lower ratio of muscle fibers to axons ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 21. What is the name given to the synapse where a motor neuron’s axon meets a muscle fiber? Neuromuscular junction b. Polar junction c.

Muscle spindle d. Neurofiber synapse ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 22. Moving a leg or arm back and forth requires opposing sets of muscles called ____. Extensor muscles b. Flexor muscles c.

Cardiac muscles d. Antagonistic muscles ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 23. The absence of acetylcholine will cause a muscle to ____. Stretch ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 24.

Which muscle is “antagonistic” to a flexor muscle in the right arm? A flexor muscle in the right arm b. An extensor muscle in the left arm c.

An extensor muscle in the right arm d. Another flexor muscle in the right arm ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 25. The eye muscles have a ratio of about ____ axon(s) per ____ muscle fiber(s). Two; three b. One; three c. Three; two d.

Three; one ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 26. The biceps muscles of the arm have a ratio of ____ to more than a hundred fibers.

Two ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 27. In movement, the ____ muscle straightens the arm.

Skeletal ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 28. A fish will adjust to lower water temperatures by ____.

Activating more action potentials b. Increasing the amplitude of its action potentials c. Recruiting different muscle fibers d. Returning to its basal metabolic rate ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 29.

Which muscles are especially important when running up a flight of stairs at full speed? Fast-twitch muscles a.

Slow-twitch muscles c. Smooth muscles d. Intermediate muscles ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 30. If a new species were found with legs composed almost completely of fast-twitch muscles, what could we infer about its behavior? It could chase prey over long distances. It could chase prey only over short distances.

It probably travels constantly. It probably moves slowly and grazes on vegetation. ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.

TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 31. During aerobic exercises such as dancing, as glucose is used by the muscles, ____. Fast-twitch fibers absorb more glucose b. Slow-twitch muscles produce glucose anaerobically c. Glucose use increases d. Glucose use decreases ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.

TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 32. Exercising at a high altitude where there is less oxygen is most likely to affect ____. Intermediate fibers b. Anaerobic contraction c. Fast-twitch fibers d.

Slow-twitch fibers ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 33. Vigorous use of fast-twitch fibers results in fatigue because the process is ____.

Abolic ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 34. A proprioceptor is sensitive to the ____.

Degree of relaxation or contraction of smooth muscle tissue b. Position and movement of a part of the body c. Percentage of fibers that are contracting within a muscle bundle d.

Degree of fatigue in a muscle ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 35. The stretch reflex ____. Results in a stretch b. Is caused by a stretch c. Inhibits motor neurons d. Sends a message for a muscle to relax ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.

TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 36. A boxer’s ability to sense the position of his arm and hand before planning a punch is dependent on the sense of ____. Proprioception b. Somatosensation c. Vision ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 37. A muscle spindle responds to the ____.

Oxygen level in the muscle b. Acetylcholine concentration at the nerve-muscle junction c. Fatigue of the muscle d. Stretch of the muscle ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 38. A sudden stretch of a muscle excites a feedback system that opposes the stretch. This message starts in the ____.

Dorsal root ganglion b. Cerebellum c. Pacinian corpuscles d. Muscle spindles ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.

TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 39. A Golgi tendon organ responds to ____. Increases in muscle tension b. Decreases in muscle tension c. Increases in muscle spindles d.

Decreases in muscle spindles ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 40. The role of the Golgi tendon organs is to ____.

Prevent extreme muscle contractions b. Guard against fatigue of muscles c. Produce rapid repetitive movements such as finger tapping d. Regulate blood flow to the tendons and muscles ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 41. Muscle spindles respond to changes in muscle ____; Golgi tendon organs respond to changes in muscle ____. Tension; fatigue b.

Fatigue; tension c. Stretch; tension d.

Tension; stretch ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 42.

Activity of a muscle spindle is to ____ as activity of the Golgi tendon organ is to ____. Contraction; inhibition of contraction b. Inhibition of contraction; contraction c. Inhibition of contraction; inhibition of contraction d.

Contraction; contraction ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 43.

What experience is similar to losing proprioception? Losing your sense of equilibrium b. Walking on a leg that has “fallen asleep” c.

Having a phantom limb d. Teeth chattering in the cold ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 44. A physician who asks you to cross your legs and then taps just below the knee is testing your ____ reflexes. Constriction b. Fast ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Muscles and Their Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 45.

A ballistic movement ____. Is a rhythmic alternation between two movements b. Is guided by feedback during the course of the movement c. Proceeds automatically once it has been triggered d. Tends to overcorrect itself ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them.

TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 46. Central pattern generators ____. Contribute to rhythmic patterns of movement b. Generate movement which is unresponsive to environmental stimulation c.

Constrict the pupils in response to bright light d. Control all reflexes in adult humans ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 47. Kpg 49d 4 20 Download Movies there. A motor program is a ____. Mechanism that guides movement on the basis of sensory feedback b. Mechanism that produces an alternation between two movements c. Plan for training a brain-damaged person to walk d.

Movement that, once triggered, continues automatically until its completion ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 48. Which action is an example of a motor program in chickens with featherless wings?

Flapping wings if suddenly dropped b. Learning to fly c.

Stretching its wings but not flapping them d. Flapping its wings while eating ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 49.

Which behavior is most likely to result from the activity of central pattern generators? A dog shaking itself to dry off b. A child catching a baseball c. A child playing the piano d.

An adult yawning ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 50. Which activity is an example of a motor program in a human? Making a list c. Taking your first steps d.

Learning how to drive ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Units of Movement LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.01 – List the types of muscles and the proprioceptors that control them. TOPICS: 7.1 The Control of Movement 51. In order to elicit movement, the motor cortex ____. Has direct connections to the muscles b. Sends axons to the brainstem and spinal cord c. Controls isolated movement in a single muscle d. Relies on feedback from individual muscle fibers ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.

TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 52. The posterior parietal cortex ____. Is the main area for touch and other body information b. Keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world c.

Is active during preparations for a movement and less active during movement itself d. Responds to lights, noises, and other signals for a movement. ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 53. People with posterior parietal damage ____. Can see an object, but are unable to describe it b. Have good hand-eye coordination only if they close one eye c.

Have difficulty accurately locating and approaching a sound d. Will not step over an obstacle, although they can accurately describe it ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 54. People with posterior parietal damage ____. Cannot walk toward something they hear b. Have trouble converting vision into action c.

Can walk toward something they see but cannot reach out to grasp it d. Cannot accurately describe what they see. ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 55. The prefrontal cortex ____. Is the main area for touch and other body information b.

Keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world c. Is active during preparations for a movement and less active during movement itself d. Responds to lights, noises, and other signals for a movement. ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.

TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 56. The premotor cortex ____. Is the main area for touch and other body information b. Keeps track of the position of the body relative to the world c. Is active during preparations for a movement and less active during movement itself d. Responds to lights, noises, and other signals for a movement ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 57.

Damage to the prefrontal cortex is most likely to result in ____. An inability to move b. The loss of somatosensory experiences c. Poorly planned movements d. No effect on movement ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 58.

The part of the cortex that is most active during preparations for a movement and less active during the movement itself is the ____. Premotor cortex b. Somatosensory cortex c. Inferior temporal cortex d.

Tabes dorsalis ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 59.

In contrast to people with posterior parietal damage, people with damage to certain parts of the occipital cortex outside the primary visual cortex ____. Cannot locate the source of sounds b. Lose their ability to see everything c. Can accurately describe what they see but cannot reach out to grasp it d. Cannot accurately describe what they see but can reach out to grasp it ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 60.

When are the cells in the premotor cortex (in contrast to the primary motor cortex) most active? In preparation for movements b. During movements c. At or after the end of movements d. During inhibition of movements ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.

TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 61. The part of the cortex that responds mostly to the sensory signals that lead to a movement is the ____. Premotor cortex b. Prefrontal cortex c. Supplementary motor cortex d.

Tabes dorsalis ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 62. Cells in the prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and ____ prepare for a movement, sending messages to the primary motor cortex. Posterior parietal cortex b. Secondary motor cortex c. Somatosensory cortex d.

Supplementary motor cortex ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 63. The supplementary motor cortex becomes active ____. During the second or two after a movement b. During the second or two prior to a movement c. Only during a movement d. Only after a movement ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.

TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 64. Damage to the ____ impairs the ability to organize smooth sequences of activities. Premotor cortex b. Prefrontal cortex c. Supplementary motor cortex d.

Tabes dorsalis ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 65. Just thinking about the intention to put your arm around your attractive date would activate which motor areas? Posterior parietal lobe b.

Primary motor cortex c. Premotor cortex d. Supplementary motor cortex ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 66. Watching another person shoot a basketball is most likely to activate ____ neurons in the brain of the person who is watching. Primary motor cortex b. Spinal cord c.

Observational ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 67. Mirror neurons are active when ____. Viewing mirror images b. Watching others perform movements c.

Identifying ourselves in the mirror d. Playing the piano ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 68. The motor cortex produces a kind of activity called a(n) ____ before any voluntary movement. Readiness potential b. Action potential c.

Evoked potential d. Motor potential ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition.

TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 69. Studies on conscious decisions regarding voluntary movements suggest that ____. We are conscious of our decision before brain activity is generated for movement b. Voluntary movements are the result of free will c. Brain activity for the movement begins before we are conscious of our decision d. We are unable to judge when we make conscious decisions ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.05 – Evaluate the evidence regarding the role of consciousness in planning a movement. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 70.

People with damage to the parietal cortex appear to lack ____ related to voluntary movements. A feelings of intention a. Feelings of intention b. The ability to make conscious decisions c. A sense of timing d. Muscle strength ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 71.

Paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord are called the ____. Pyramidalspinal tracts b.

Horizontalspinal tracts c. Dorsospinal tracts d.

Corticospinal tracts ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 72. Axons of the lateral corticospinal tract extend to what area? Cerebellum b. Cerebral cortex c. Spinal cord d.

Thalamus ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 73. The lateral tract cross over point is in the ____. Pyramids of the medulla b. Spinal cord c.

Reticular formation d. Vestibular nucleus ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 74. Lateral tract axons are responsible for movements in the ____.

Arms, hands, and toes b. Face and head d. Internal organs ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts.

TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 75. Most of the axons of the medial tract go to which side of the body? Contralateral b. Ipsilateral c.

Dorsolateral ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts. TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 76. Movements near the midline of the body, such as bending and turning of the trunk, are controlled by which motor system? Dorsolateral tract b. Medial tract c.

Supplementary d. Hippocampal ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 77. What is the relationship between the lateral tract and the medial tract? Most movements are controlled by one or the other, but not both. Most movements rely on both, which work in a cooperative fashion. Most movements that are initiated by one are terminated by the other.

One is excitatory while the other is inhibitory. ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.03 – Contrast the anatomy and functions of the lateral and medial corticospinal tracts. TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 78. If you have trouble with rapid, ballistic movement sequences that require accurate timing, you probably have suffered damage to the ____. Reticular formation b. Cerebellum c. Hippocampus d.

Hypothalamus ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Moveme 79. Speaking, piano playing, athletic skills, and other rapid movements would be most impaired by damage to which structure? Reticular formation b. Cerebellum c. Ventromedial hypothalamus d.

Parasympathetic nervous system ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 80. Damage to the cerebellum is most likely to interfere with ____.

Lifting weights b. The ability to remember a series of events c. Rapid movements that require timing d. Chewing and swallowing ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 81.

What is the name of the rapid eye movement occurring when a person moves his or her eyes from one focus point to another? Saccade ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 82. A saccade is initiated by impulses from the ____. Spinal cord b. Hypothalamus c. Cerebellum d. Hippocampus ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 83.

After damage to the cerebellar cortex, an individual has trouble with which part of the finger-to-nose test? The initial rapid movement to the nose b. The second step involving the hold function c. The third step which involves the finger moving to the nose by a slow movement d. Both the second and third steps ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 8.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 84.

The nuclei of the cerebellum (as opposed to the cerebellar cortex) are most important in ____. Moving a finger rapidly toward a target b. Holding a finger in a steady position c. Using the hands to lift heavy weights d. Coordinating the left hand with the right hand ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 85. The cerebellum is most important for any process that requires ____.

Precise timing b. Control of muscle strength c. Comparison between the left and right hemispheres d. Detecting the intensity of a stimulus ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 86. Purkinje cells are ____. Proprioceptors b. Flat cells in sequential planes c.

Nuclei in the central cerebellum d. Axons parallel to one another ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 87.

How do parallel fibers in the cerebellum control the duration of a response? By determining the number of Purkinje cells that fire in sequence b. By altering the velocity of action potentials from Purkinje cells c. By determining which one of all the available Purkinje cells becomes active d.

By passing information back and forth between one Purkinje cell and another ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 88. Which widely branching cells are responsible for all of the output from the cerebellar cortex to the nuclei of the cerebellum? Parallel fibers b. Purkinje cells c. Putamen cells d.

Saccade cells ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 89. The greater the number of Purkinje cells activated, the ____. Less the collective duration of the response b. Greater the collective duration of the response c.

Greater the strength of the response d. Less the strength of the response ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 90. The structure composed of the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus is the ____. Basal ganglia b.

Limbic system c. Cerebellum d. Sympathetic nervous system ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Basal Ganglia LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 91. Most of the output from the globus pallidus to the thalamus releases ____. GABA ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Basal Ganglia LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 92.

Which basal ganglia structure(s) is/are important for receiving input from sensory areas of the thalamus and the cerebral cortex? Globus pallidus and putamen b. Globus pallidus and caudate nucleus c.

Caudate nucleus and putamen d. Globus pallidus ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: The Basal Ganglia LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 93. The basal ganglia are most critical for learning ____. Motor habits that are difficult to describe in words b. Repetitive motor behaviors like cutting with a knife c. Motor skills that include an element of balance d.

Fine motor skills such as sewing ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Brain Areas and Motor learning LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 94. Cerebellum is to ____ as basal ganglia are to ____. Clumsy; paralysis b. Initiation; stopping c. Gross muscle function; fine motor coordination d.

Timing; voluntary movements ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Basal Ganglia LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 95. What is one of the main symptoms of Parkinson’s disease? Rapid fatigue of the muscles b. Loss of saccadic eye movements c.

Difficulty initiating movements d. Inability to coordinate speech with movements ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 96. Parkinson’s disease is caused by degeneration of a pathway of neurons that releases which neurotransmitter? Acetylcholine b. Substance P c. Dopamine ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 97. In Parkinson’s disease, which pathway in the brain degenerates?

Basal ganglia to cerebellum b. Substantia nigra to caudate nucleus and putamen c. Cerebellum to spinal cord d. Cerebral cortex to spinal cord ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 98. The role of heredity in late-onset Parkinson’s disease ____.

Equals that of early onset Parkinson’s disease b. Is probably not as great as with early onset Parkinson’s disease c. Is greater for DZ twins that MZ twins d. Is greater for females than males ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 99.

Genetic factors have their greatest impact on Parkinson’s disease in cases that involve ____. Early onset of the disease b. Late onset of the disease c. First-born children d. Children with older brothers and sisters ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 100. What is the effect of MPTP? It kills the neurons that release dopamine. It suppresses activity of the immune system. It is converted in the brain to dopamine. It inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 101. It is believed that exposure to herbicides and pesticides is ____. The primary cause of Parkinson’s disease b. A contributing factor in some cases of Huntington’s disease c. The primary cause of myasthenia gravis d.

A contributing factor in some cases of Parkinson’s disease ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 102. What is the most common drug in the treatment for Parkinson’s disease? Haloperidol b. Physostigmine c. L-dopa ANSWER: d DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 103. A dopamine pill is ineffective for treating Parkinson’s disease because it ____. Is already present in too large an amount b. Does not cross the blood-brain barrier c. Would have to be the size of a baseball to be effective d. Is too expensive ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 104. What is a limitation of using L-dopa for Parkinson’s disease?

It only helps those who are in the later stages. It does not cross the blood-brain barrier. It can contribute to a greater loss of dopamine neurons. It blocks glutamate receptors. ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 105. L-Dopa, a common treatment for Parkinson’s disease, is a drug that ____.

Inhibits activity of the immune system b. Increases the brain’s production of dopamine c. Blocks the enzyme acetylcholinesterase d. Facilitates the passage of sodium across neuron membranes ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 106. As an option for treating Parkinson’s patients, transplantation of stem cells appears to be ____. The most effective technique b. More effective in late stages of the disease c.

Modestly effective, as with other treatments d. Not at all effective ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease.

TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 107. Early symptoms of Huntington’s disease usually include ____. Jerky arm movements and body tremors c. Rapid fatigue d.

Difficulty coordinating the left hand with the right hand ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 108. What is a common symptom of Huntington’s disease? Rapid fatigue of the muscles b. Loss of both sensation and motor control in certain limbs c. Twitches, tremors, and writhing that interfere with voluntary movement d.

Impairment of saccadic eye movements and rapid alternating movements ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 109. Which parts of the brain deteriorate most strongly in Huntington’s disease? Pathways of neurons containing the neurotransmitter dopamine b. The cerebellum and medulla c. The caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus d.

The hippocampus and amygdala ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 110.

The psychological disorders that accompany Huntington’s disease could be mistaken for which of the following? Schizophrenia b. Dissociative identity disorder c. Antisocial personality disorder d. Bipolar disorder ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 111.

What is the usual age of onset for Huntington’s disease? 5-7 years old b. 12-20 years old c. 30-50 years old d.

65 years or older ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 112. What is the relationship of genetics to Huntington’s disease? It is caused by a dominant gene on the X chromosome. It is caused by a dominant gene on chromosome 4.

It is caused by a recessive gene on one of the autosomal chromosomes. There is no evidence linking Huntington’s disease to any gene. ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 113. In its normal form, part of the gene that controls Huntington’s disease repeats its sequence of bases ____. Under ten times b.

Between approximately 11-24 times c. At least 36 times d.

Approximately 75 or 80 times ANSWER: b DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 114. The presymptomatic test for Huntington’s disease enables one to predict not only who will get the disease but also ____. The approximate age of onset b. What other diseases the person will contract c. Which drugs will best alleviate the disease d.

Which symptoms will become prominent first, and which ones later ANSWER: a DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Understand REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders 115. Which of the following would be the most promising treatment for Huntington’s disease? Enhancing formation of glutamine chains b. Increasing production of huntingtin c. Blocking formation of glutamine chain clustering d.

Decreasing production of BDNF ANSWER: c DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Huntington’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders Essay 116. Describe the areas and major functions of the primary motor cortex (include the relevant areas near to the motor cortex). Airtel Ovvoru Friendum Thevai Machan Ringtone here. ANSWER: Since the pioneering work of Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig (1870), neuroscientists have known that direct electrical stimulation of the primary motor cortex—the precentral gyrus of the frontal cortex, just anterior to the central sulcus—elicits movements. The motor cortex does not send messages directly to the muscles.

Its axons extend to the brainstem and spinal cord, which generate the impulses that control the muscles. In most mammals, these axons connect only to interneurons, which in turn control motor neurons. In humans and other primates, some axons go directly from the cerebral cortex to motor neurons, presumably giving us greater dexterity.

Human movements depend on both the axons to motor neurons and axons to interneurons. The motor cortex is just anterior to the somatosensory cortex, and the two match up nicely. That is, the brain area that controls the left hand is near the area that feels the left hand, the area that controls the left foot is near the area that feels the left foot, and so forth. You need to feel a body part to control its movement accurately. The primary motor cortex is important for making movements, but not for initial planning.

One of the first areas to become active in planning a movement is the posterior parietal cortex which monitors the position of the body relative to the world. The prefrontal cortex and the supplementary motor cortex are also important for planning and organizing a rapid sequence. The premotor cortex is most active immediately before a movement. It receives information about the target to which the body is directing its movement, as well as information about the body’s current position and posture. The prefrontal cortex, which is also active during a delay before a movement, stores sensory information relevant to a movement. It is also important for considering the probable outcomes of possible movements.

DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 117. Describe the significance of mirror neurons. ANSWER: O f discoveries in neuroscience, one of the most exciting to psychologists has been mirror neurons, which are active both during preparation for a movement and while watching someone else perform the same or a similar movement.

Mirror neurons were first reported in the premotor cortex of monkeys and later in other areas and other species, including humans. These neurons are theoretically exciting because of the idea that they may be important for understanding other people, identifying with them, and imitating them. For example, mirror neurons in part of the frontal cortex become active when people smile or see someone else smile, and they respond especially strongly in people who report identifying strongly with other people. Many people have speculated that people with autism—who fail to form strong social bonds—might lack mirror neurons.

However, one study using fMRI found normal mirror neuron responses in autistic people, so we need to look elsewhere to explain autism. Mirror neurons are activated not only by seeing an action, but also by any reminder of the action. Certain cells respond to hearing an action as well as seeing or doing it. Other cells respond to either doing an action or reading about it. The possibilities are exciting, but before we speculate too far, an important question remains: Do mirror neurons cause imitation and social behavior, or do they result from them? Put another way, are we born with neurons that respond to the sight of a movement and also facilitate the same movement?

If so, they could be important for social learning. However, another possibility is that we learn which visible movements correspond to movements of our own. Then seeing others’ actions reminds us of our own, and activates brain areas responsible for those actions. In that case, mirror neurons are not responsible for imitation or socialization. The answer may be different for different movements. Some newborn infants imitate a few facial movements, especially tongue protrusion. That result implies built-in mirror neurons that connect the sight of a movement to the movement itself.

However, in both monkey and human infants, many mirror neurons do not respond to observations of others’ movements until after the infant has practiced making those movements itself. A mirror neuron cannot be essential for learning to imitate a movement if you have to practice the movement before that neuron develops its mirror properties. Also, researchers identified mirror neurons that responded both when people moved a certain finger, such as the index finger, and when they watched someone else move the same finger. Then they asked people to watch a display on the screen and move their index finger whenever the hand on the screen moved the little finger. They were to move their little finger whenever the hand on the screen moved the index finger. After some practice, these “mirror” neurons turned into “counter-mirror” neurons that responded to movements of one finger by that person and the sight of a different finger on the screen.

In other words, at least some mirror neurons modify their properties by learning, and therefore it is possible that they developed their original properties by learning also. DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.02 – Describe the cortical mechanisms that control movement and its inhibition. TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 118. Describe the relationship of conscious decisions and movements. What may this relationship reveal about consciousness?

ANSWER: Each of us has the feeling, “I consciously decide to do something, and then I do it.” That sequence seems so obvious that we might not even question it, but research casts doubt on this assumption. Research indicates that the brain activity responsible for the movement apparently began before the person’s conscious decision to move. The results seem to indicate that your conscious decision does not cause your action. Rather, you become conscious of the decision after the process leading to action has already been underway for about 300 ms. None of these results deny that you make a voluntary decision.

The implication, however, is that what we identify as a conscious decision is the perception of a gradual brain process. It probably begins with unconscious processes that build up to a certain level before they become conscious. DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebral Cortex LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.05 – Evaluate the evidence regarding the role of consciousness in planning a movement.

TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 119. Briefly describe the cellular organization of the cerebellum. ANSWER: The cerebellum receives input from the spinal cord, from each of the sensory systems by way of the cranial nerve nuclei, and from the cerebral cortex.

That information eventually reaches the cerebellar cortex, the surface of the cerebellum. • The neurons are arranged in a precise geometrical pattern, with multiple repetitions of the same units. • The Purkinje cells are flat (two-dimensional) cells in sequential planes, parallel to one another. • The parallel fibers are axons parallel to one another and perpendicular to the planes of the Purkinje cells. • Action potentials in parallel fibers excite one Purkinje cell after another. Each Purkinje cell then transmits an inhibitory message to cells in the nuclei of the cerebellum (clusters of cell bodies in the interior of the cerebellum) and the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem, which in turn send information to the midbrain and the thalamus. • Depending on which and how many parallel fibers are active, they might stimulate only the first few Purkinje cells or a long series of them.

Because the parallel fibers’ messages reach different Purkinje cells one after another, the greater the number of excited Purkinje cells, the greater their collective duration of response. That is, if the parallel fibers stimulate only the first few Purkinje cells, the result is a brief message to the target cells; if they stimulate more Purkinje cells, the message lasts longer.

The output of Purkinje cells controls the timing of a movement, including both its onset and offset. DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: The Cerebellum LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.04 – Describe the functions of the cerebellum and basal ganglia TOPICS: 7.2 Brain Mechanisms of Movement 120. Briefly describe the nature of Parkinson’s disease. Include a discussion of its causes and possible treatments. ANSWER: The main symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (also known as Parkinson disease) are rigidity, muscle tremors, slow movements, and difficulty initiating physical and mental activity. It becomes more common as people age, striking 1 percent to 2 percent of people over age 65. Early symptoms usually include loss of olfaction and psychological depression.

Many but not all Parkinson’s patients have cognitive deficits, which may include problems with attention, language, or memory. The immediate cause of Parkinson’s disease is the gradual loss of neurons in the substantia nigra and therefore a loss of dopamine-releasing axons to the striatum (part of the basal ganglia). With the loss of this input, the striatum decreases its inhibition of the globus pallidus, which therefore increases its inhibitory input to the thalamus.

The result is less vigorous voluntary movements. People with Parkinson’s disease are still capable of movement, and sometimes they move normally in response to signals or instructions, such as when following a parade. However, their spontaneous movements are slow and weak. What causes the damage to the substantia nigra? An early study reported that having a monozygotic twin with early-onset Parkinson’s disease greatly increased your probability of getting it, but having a monozygotic twin with late-onset disease had no effect. That result implied that genes make little or no contribution to late-onset Parkinson’s disease.

Later studies have found less extreme results, indicating that genes do influence the late-onset disease, though less strongly than they impact early-onset disease. So far, researchers have identified more than 20 genes that apparently increase the risk of Parkinson’s disease, although the results vary from one study to another, and one population to another. The results agree, however, that none of these genes by itself produces a high risk. An accidental discovery implicated exposure to toxins as another factor in Parkinson’s disease. In northern California in 1982, several young adults developed symptoms of Parkinson’s disease after using a drug similar to heroin. Before the investigators could alert the community to the danger, many other users had developed symptoms ranging from mild to fatal.

The substance responsible for the symptoms was MPTP, a chemical that the body converts to MPP+, which accumulates in, and then destroys, neurons that release dopamine, partly by impairing the transport of mitochondria from the cell body to the synapse. Postsynaptic neurons react to the loss of input by increasing their number of dopamine receptors. People are sometimes exposed to hazardous environmental chemicals that damage cells of the substantia nigra. Many studies have shown increased risk of Parkinson’s disease among people with much exposure to insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, including paraquat, rotenone, maneb, and ziram. The disease is more common in farmers and other rural dwellers than in city dwellers, presumably because of increased exposure to these chemicals. Exposure to these chemicals increases the risk especially among people with any of the genes that predispose to Parkinson’s. If someone also had a traumatic head injury, the risk goes up even more.

In short, most cases result from several influences combined, not just one. What else might influence the risk of Parkinson’s disease? Researchers compared the lifestyles of people who did and didn’t develop the disease. One factor that stands out consistently is cigarette smoking and coffee drinking: People who smoke cigarettes or drink coffee have less chance of developing Parkinson’s disease. Because Parkinson’s disease results from a dopamine deficiency, a logical goal is to restore the missing dopamine.

A dopamine pill would be ineffective because dopamine does not cross the blood–brain barrier. Physicians in the 1950s and 1960s reasoned that L-dopa, a precursor to dopamine that does cross the barrier, might be a good treatment. In contrast to all the medicines that were discovered by trial and error, this was the first drug in psychiatry or neurology, and one of the first in all of medicine, to emerge from a plausible theory. Taken as a daily pill, L-dopa reaches the brain, where neurons convert it to dopamine. L-dopa is still the most common treatment for Parkinson’s disease. However, L-dopa treatment is disappointing in several ways. It increases dopamine release in all axons, including those that had deteriorated and those that were still functioning normally.

It produces spurts of high release alternating with lower release. Even if it adequately replaces lost dopamine, it does not replace other transmitters that are also depleted. It does not slow the continuing loss of neurons. And it produces unpleasant side effects such as nausea, restlessness, sleep problems, low blood pressure, repetitive movements, and sometimes hallucinations and delusions. A potentially exciting strategy has been “in the experimental stage” since the 1980s.

In a pioneering study, M. Perlow and colleagues (1979) injected the chemical 6-OHDA (6-hydroxydopamine, a chemical modification of dopamine) into rats to damage the substantia nigra of one hemisphere, producing Parkinson’s-type symptoms on the opposite side of the body. After the movement abnormalities stabilized, the experimenters transplanted substantia nigra tissue from rat fetuses into the damaged brains. Most recipients recovered much of their normal movement within four weeks. Control animals that suffered the same brain damage without receiving grafts showed little or no recovery. This is only a partial brain transplant, but still, the Frankensteinian implications are striking. If such surgery works for rats, might it also for humans?

Ordinarily, scientists test any experimental procedure extensively with laboratory animals before trying it on humans, but with Parkinson’s disease, the temptation was too great. People in the late stages have little to lose and are willing to try almost anything. The obvious problem is where to get the donor tissue. Several early studies used tissue from the patient’s own adrenal gland. Although that tissue is not composed of neurons, it produces and releases dopamine. Unfortunately, the adrenal gland transplants seldom produced much benefit.

Another possibility is to transplant brain tissue from aborted fetuses. Fetal neurons transplanted into the brains of patients with Parkinson’s sometimes survive for years and make synapses with the patient’s own cells. However, the operation is expensive and difficult, requiring brain tissue from four to eight aborted fetuses, and the benefits to the patient have been small at best. A related approach is to take stem cells—immature cells that are capable of differentiating into other cell types—guide their development so that they produce large quantities of L-dopa, and then transplant them into the brain. The idea sounds promising, but researchers will need to overcome several difficulties before this might become an effective treatment. DIFFICULTY: Bloom’s: Analyze REFERENCES: Parkinson’s Disease LEARNING OBJECTIVES: KALA.BIOP.16.07.06 – Discuss the causes of Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease. TOPICS: 7.3 Movement Disorders.

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